Cellular Metabolism Wordle

Cellular respiration is the process in which stored energy is released. It uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. There are three main stages in cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The net product from cellular respiration can be up to 38 ATP: 2 ATP from glycolysis, 2 ATP from the Krebs cycle, and 34 ATP from the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts and need sunlight to drive their reactions. Photosynthesis is the process where organisms use energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen, occurring only in the presence of sunlight. In this process, carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is released in its place. There are two main stages in photosynthesis: light reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light reactions, there are three steps, Photosystem II, Chemiosmosis, and Photosystem I. Water, carbon, sunlight, and ATP are all major necessities needed for photosynthesis to occur. C3, C4, and CAM plants also undergo photosynthesis. The energy that enters the chloroplasts as sunlight becomes stored as chemical energy in organic compounds. The sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies the entire plant with chemical energy.Both cellular respiration and photosynthesis need ATP because it drives the cycle’s energy.

Source: Campbell book

Cellular Division Wordle

A protist is a unicellular eukaryote, single-celled, and microscopic. A protist has multicellular forms and some relatively complex giants. Some examples of protists include the Paramecium and the Euglena. Fungi are constructed of hyphae, septa, and mycelium. They have cell walls that are made of chitin. Fungi include mold, yeasts, and lichens and they can act as both decomposers and pathogens. Although it is a pathogen, fungi can be commercially important to humans, such as people eating mushrooms, blue cheese, and Roquefort. Bacteriophages are viruses that attack the cell. Most bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species. Gram stain can determine whether the bacteria is gram-positive or gram-negative. A gram-positive bacteria is when the cell walls has a big amount of peptidoglycan. A gram-negative bacteria has less peptidoglycan but more lipopolysaccharides, carbonhydrates bonded to lipids. Pathogenic gram-negative bacteria is often more harmful because their lipopolysaccharides may be toxic and this outer membrane also protects them. There are three basic genetic recombination for bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation is the uptake of genes from the environment. Conjugation is the direct transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes. Transduction occurs when the virus transfers the gene. Endospores in bacteria allow the bacteria to thrive in harsh conditions, such as boiling temperature or hydrate and revive to the cology-producing state. Viruses are noncellular obligate intracellular parasites that attack cells. Viruses can undergo either lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle. Three main important parts of the virus is its tail, DNA/RNA, and protein coat. A prion is a protein infectious agent that does not reproduce by itself and may be linked to several degenerative brain diseases. A viron are small tiny molecules of naked circular RNA that infect plants.

Source: Campbell Book

Bacteria, Virus, Prion, and Protist

Bacteriophages, or bacteria, are viruses that attack the cell. Most bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species. Gram stain can determine whether the bacteria is gram-positive or gram-negative. A gram-positive bacteria is when the cell walls has a big amount of peptidoglycan. A gram-negative bacteria has less peptidoglycan but more lipopolysaccharides, carbonhydrates bonded to lipids. Pathogenic gram-negative bacteria is often more harmful because their lipopolysaccharides may be toxic and this outer membrane also protects them. Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission, which is cell division which synthesizes DNA continually, producing a colony of progeny. There are three basic genetic recombination for bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation is the uptake of genes from the environment. Conjugation is the direct transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes. Transduction occurs when the virus transfers the gene. Endospores in bacteria allow the bacteria to thrive in harsh conditions, such as boiling temperature or hydrate and revive to the cology-producing state.
Viruses are noncellular parasites that attack cells. Because they are obligate intracellular parasites, they must wait for the right moment to penetrate and enter the cell, claiming its new host. Viruses can undergo either lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle. Three main important parts of the virus is its tail, DNA/RNA, and protein coat.
A prion is a protein infectious agent that does not reproduce by itself and may be linked to several degenerative brain diseases. Unlike the bacteria and virus, the protist is an eukaryotic organism. It is not like the bacteria and virus where it penetrates the host and causes the host to be sick.
A protist is a unicellular eukaryote, single-celled, and microscopic. A protist has multicellular forms and some relatively complex giants. The main groups of Protistan diversity are Diplomonadida, Parabasala, Euglenozoa, Alveolata, Stramenopila, Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Mycetozoa. Some examples of protists include the Paramecium and the Euglena.

Bacteria

Virus

Protist-Paramecium

Protist-Euglena

Source: Campbell book
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg/320px-Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg.png
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http://www.infovisual.info/02/img_en/001%20Structure%20of%20a%20euglena.jpg

Bacterial Transformation

The purpose of this experiment was to isolate the recombinant plasmid. First, a bacteria and DNA were mixed together by cold calcium chloride with a heat shock, ending at a cold temperature. In this process, the bacteria has no choice but to take up the plasmid DNA. Then the bacteria and DNA was spread over a culture plate containing two antibiotics: tetracycline and kanamycin. The transformed bacteria with both resistance genes are the only ones that can only grow in the presence of both antibiotics. The result of this experiment was a bacteria transformed that contained a recombined plasmid with both tetracycline and kanamycin genes. Not only this, but also the bacteria could’ve also doubly transformed. The scientists had seen that the bacteria had been transformed by a recombinant plasmid.

In bacterial transformation, in order to grow, the bacteria had to be resistant to both tetracycline and kanamycin antibiotics. In order to grow, the bacteria had to take in both genes in order to be resistant and grow. In bacterial transduction, the cell membrane is made up of lipid molecules with negatively charged phosphates. Because it is so negatively charged, the DNA helix is repelled by the lipids. In order for the DNA helix to pass through, the CA2+ ions create a neutral situation, and with the help of a heat shock and cold temperatures, the CA2+ and lipid molecules do not repel as much. The heat shock may set up a current and with the ionic shield in place, the DNA passes through the adhesion zone.

Source: http://www.dnalc.org/view/15916-DNA-transformation.html

Three Beneficial Bacteria

Lactobacillus is acid-resistant and tolerates bile very effectively. This bacteria lives in our digestive, urinary, and genital systems without causing any diseases. The lactobacillus is used for treating and preventing diarrhea.It is also used for skin disorders such as fever blisters, canker sores, eczema (allergic dermatitis) and acne. It is great towards high cholesterol, lactose intolerance, Lyme disease, hives, and to boost the immune system. If children have lung infections and if you give them lactobacillus, then the children will have fewer and less severe lung infections. If given lactobacillus, children will have less experience with diarrhea when they take antibiotics.

Ruminococcus is a non-motile organism with a coccoid shape. They are anaerobic bacteria and must obtain nutrients by breaking down cellulose and they are capable of fermenting glucose. Ruminococcus inhabits the rumen cattle, sheep, and goats. This is a beneficial bacteria towards farmers because farmers will be able to make advances in animal productivity. It helps in the digestion of cellulose. Without the ruminococcus, cattles will not be healthy and they will not be able to properly digest grasses and grains.

Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacteria that produces crystals protein, also known as cry proteins, which are toxic to many insect species. Bacillus thuringiensis is used for agriculture such as organic farming, urban aerial spraying programs, and in transgenic crops. It is safe in the environment for mammals and the EPA has not found any related threats or dangers caused by this bacteria towards humans. Once eaten by the insect, the toxin blinds to specific receptors in the gut, causing the insect to stop eating. This is potentially helpful towards to the plants because there will not be as much damage as if could have had if the insects had continued eating away at the plant. Because of this bacteria, farmers have to be careful when matching up which insects and which Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. This is beneficial towards the insects because they will not be harmed as much although the insects will die in a couple of days and not immediately.

Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/790.html
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Ruminococcus
http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html