Cellular Metabolism Wordle

Cellular respiration is the process in which stored energy is released. It uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. There are three main stages in cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The net product from cellular respiration can be up to 38 ATP: 2 ATP from glycolysis, 2 ATP from the Krebs cycle, and 34 ATP from the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts and need sunlight to drive their reactions. Photosynthesis is the process where organisms use energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen, occurring only in the presence of sunlight. In this process, carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is released in its place. There are two main stages in photosynthesis: light reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light reactions, there are three steps, Photosystem II, Chemiosmosis, and Photosystem I. Water, carbon, sunlight, and ATP are all major necessities needed for photosynthesis to occur. C3, C4, and CAM plants also undergo photosynthesis. The energy that enters the chloroplasts as sunlight becomes stored as chemical energy in organic compounds. The sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies the entire plant with chemical energy.Both cellular respiration and photosynthesis need ATP because it drives the cycle’s energy.

Source: Campbell book

Cellular Division Wordle

A protist is a unicellular eukaryote, single-celled, and microscopic. A protist has multicellular forms and some relatively complex giants. Some examples of protists include the Paramecium and the Euglena. Fungi are constructed of hyphae, septa, and mycelium. They have cell walls that are made of chitin. Fungi include mold, yeasts, and lichens and they can act as both decomposers and pathogens. Although it is a pathogen, fungi can be commercially important to humans, such as people eating mushrooms, blue cheese, and Roquefort. Bacteriophages are viruses that attack the cell. Most bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species. Gram stain can determine whether the bacteria is gram-positive or gram-negative. A gram-positive bacteria is when the cell walls has a big amount of peptidoglycan. A gram-negative bacteria has less peptidoglycan but more lipopolysaccharides, carbonhydrates bonded to lipids. Pathogenic gram-negative bacteria is often more harmful because their lipopolysaccharides may be toxic and this outer membrane also protects them. There are three basic genetic recombination for bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation is the uptake of genes from the environment. Conjugation is the direct transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes. Transduction occurs when the virus transfers the gene. Endospores in bacteria allow the bacteria to thrive in harsh conditions, such as boiling temperature or hydrate and revive to the cology-producing state. Viruses are noncellular obligate intracellular parasites that attack cells. Viruses can undergo either lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle. Three main important parts of the virus is its tail, DNA/RNA, and protein coat. A prion is a protein infectious agent that does not reproduce by itself and may be linked to several degenerative brain diseases. A viron are small tiny molecules of naked circular RNA that infect plants.

Source: Campbell Book

Bacteria, Virus, Prion, and Protist

Bacteriophages, or bacteria, are viruses that attack the cell. Most bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan, which consists of polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species. Gram stain can determine whether the bacteria is gram-positive or gram-negative. A gram-positive bacteria is when the cell walls has a big amount of peptidoglycan. A gram-negative bacteria has less peptidoglycan but more lipopolysaccharides, carbonhydrates bonded to lipids. Pathogenic gram-negative bacteria is often more harmful because their lipopolysaccharides may be toxic and this outer membrane also protects them. Bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission, which is cell division which synthesizes DNA continually, producing a colony of progeny. There are three basic genetic recombination for bacteria: transformation, conjugation, and transduction. Transformation is the uptake of genes from the environment. Conjugation is the direct transfer of genetic material between prokaryotes. Transduction occurs when the virus transfers the gene. Endospores in bacteria allow the bacteria to thrive in harsh conditions, such as boiling temperature or hydrate and revive to the cology-producing state.
Viruses are noncellular parasites that attack cells. Because they are obligate intracellular parasites, they must wait for the right moment to penetrate and enter the cell, claiming its new host. Viruses can undergo either lytic cycle or lysogenic cycle. Three main important parts of the virus is its tail, DNA/RNA, and protein coat.
A prion is a protein infectious agent that does not reproduce by itself and may be linked to several degenerative brain diseases. Unlike the bacteria and virus, the protist is an eukaryotic organism. It is not like the bacteria and virus where it penetrates the host and causes the host to be sick.
A protist is a unicellular eukaryote, single-celled, and microscopic. A protist has multicellular forms and some relatively complex giants. The main groups of Protistan diversity are Diplomonadida, Parabasala, Euglenozoa, Alveolata, Stramenopila, Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Mycetozoa. Some examples of protists include the Paramecium and the Euglena.

Bacteria

Virus

Protist-Paramecium

Protist-Euglena

Source: Campbell book
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg/320px-Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg.png
http://www.fcahomeschool.com/samplelessons/hsacbiology_files/image001.gif
http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSRvzSm9qmrYO23trY9sGazDn2_EBL8RigULiPT6FQdA5IXH8bW1A
http://www.infovisual.info/02/img_en/001%20Structure%20of%20a%20euglena.jpg

Bacterial Transformation

The purpose of this experiment was to isolate the recombinant plasmid. First, a bacteria and DNA were mixed together by cold calcium chloride with a heat shock, ending at a cold temperature. In this process, the bacteria has no choice but to take up the plasmid DNA. Then the bacteria and DNA was spread over a culture plate containing two antibiotics: tetracycline and kanamycin. The transformed bacteria with both resistance genes are the only ones that can only grow in the presence of both antibiotics. The result of this experiment was a bacteria transformed that contained a recombined plasmid with both tetracycline and kanamycin genes. Not only this, but also the bacteria could’ve also doubly transformed. The scientists had seen that the bacteria had been transformed by a recombinant plasmid.

In bacterial transformation, in order to grow, the bacteria had to be resistant to both tetracycline and kanamycin antibiotics. In order to grow, the bacteria had to take in both genes in order to be resistant and grow. In bacterial transduction, the cell membrane is made up of lipid molecules with negatively charged phosphates. Because it is so negatively charged, the DNA helix is repelled by the lipids. In order for the DNA helix to pass through, the CA2+ ions create a neutral situation, and with the help of a heat shock and cold temperatures, the CA2+ and lipid molecules do not repel as much. The heat shock may set up a current and with the ionic shield in place, the DNA passes through the adhesion zone.

Source: http://www.dnalc.org/view/15916-DNA-transformation.html

Three Beneficial Bacteria

Lactobacillus is acid-resistant and tolerates bile very effectively. This bacteria lives in our digestive, urinary, and genital systems without causing any diseases. The lactobacillus is used for treating and preventing diarrhea.It is also used for skin disorders such as fever blisters, canker sores, eczema (allergic dermatitis) and acne. It is great towards high cholesterol, lactose intolerance, Lyme disease, hives, and to boost the immune system. If children have lung infections and if you give them lactobacillus, then the children will have fewer and less severe lung infections. If given lactobacillus, children will have less experience with diarrhea when they take antibiotics.

Ruminococcus is a non-motile organism with a coccoid shape. They are anaerobic bacteria and must obtain nutrients by breaking down cellulose and they are capable of fermenting glucose. Ruminococcus inhabits the rumen cattle, sheep, and goats. This is a beneficial bacteria towards farmers because farmers will be able to make advances in animal productivity. It helps in the digestion of cellulose. Without the ruminococcus, cattles will not be healthy and they will not be able to properly digest grasses and grains.

Bacillus thuringiensis is a bacteria that produces crystals protein, also known as cry proteins, which are toxic to many insect species. Bacillus thuringiensis is used for agriculture such as organic farming, urban aerial spraying programs, and in transgenic crops. It is safe in the environment for mammals and the EPA has not found any related threats or dangers caused by this bacteria towards humans. Once eaten by the insect, the toxin blinds to specific receptors in the gut, causing the insect to stop eating. This is potentially helpful towards to the plants because there will not be as much damage as if could have had if the insects had continued eating away at the plant. Because of this bacteria, farmers have to be careful when matching up which insects and which Bacillus thuringiensis toxin. This is beneficial towards the insects because they will not be harmed as much although the insects will die in a couple of days and not immediately.

Source: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/790.html
http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Ruminococcus
http://www.bt.ucsd.edu/how_bt_work.html

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts and need sunlight to drive their reactions. Photosynthesis is the process where organisms use energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose and oxygen. Photosynthesis can only occur in the presence of sunlight. In this process, carbon dioxide is taken in and oxygen is released in its place. There are two main stages in photosynthesis: light reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light reactions, there are three steps, Photosystem II, Chemiosmosis, and Photosystem I. First, the light reactions convert sunlight to chemical energy for ATP and NADPH. Then the Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH produced to convert carbon dioxide into sugar.
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6

Cellular respiration means the stored energy is released. Cellular respiration uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Cellular respiration can occur at any time. In this process, oxygen is absorbed whereas carbon dioxide is released in its place. There are three main stages in cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix, and the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle supply electrons by NADH to the electron transport chain which then drives oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate, then the process is passed on to the Krebs cycle where the Krebs cycle completes the oxidation of organic molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane then couples electron transport to ATP synthase, the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The net product from cellular respiration can be up to 38 ATP: 2 ATP from glycolysis, 2 ATP from the Krebs cycle, and 34 ATP from the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation.
6O2 + C6H12O6 --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy

Source: Campbell book
http://www.diffen.com/difference/Photosynthesis_vs_Respiration
https://labscience9-seeingintolife.wikispaces.com/file/view/Photosynthesis.JPG
http://bioap.wikispaces.com/file/view/c9x6cell-respiration.jpg

C3, C4, and CAM Plants

C3 plants is the first organic product of carbon fixation, a three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglycerate. C3 plants produce less food when their stomata close on hot and dry days and ribisco can only accept O2 in replace of CO2, which means that the Calvin cycle would have more O2 than CO2. This then results in a process known as photorespiration where it produces no food and generates no ATP. Photorespiration decreases photosynthetic output.
C4 plants form a four-carbon compound as its first product which includes bundle-sheath cells and mesophyll cells as two types of photosynthetic cells. Bundle-sheath cells are arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins. Mesophyll cells are found between the bundle sheath and the left surface. The enzyme PEP carboxylase adds CO2 to PEP, therefore being able to fix CO2 efficentiely when ribisco cannot. Within the bundle-sheath cells, the four-carbon compound releases CO2, and mesophyll cells pump CO2 into the bundle sheath cells.
CAM plants open their stomata during the night and close them during the day. They close their stomata during the day because it helps desert plants conserve water, as well as prevent CO2 from entering the leaves. When the leaves are opened during the nighttime, the plants take up CO2. The mesophyll cells store the organic acids they make during the night until the morning when their stomata close. Therefore, during the day, the light reactions that supply ATP and NADPH for the Calvin cycle release CO2 from the organic compound that was made the night before.

Source: Campbell book

Structure of Macromolecules

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are all macromolecules, a protein that consists of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. Each macromolecule has their own specific function and how the look. Some use condensation reaction and dehydration reaction, as well as hydrolysis to dissemble or assemble bonds. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides is the simplest carbohydrate, also known for sugar. Disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides and polysaccharides consist of thousands of monosaccharides. Important polysaccharides are plants that use cellulose for their tough walls and animals that store glycogen. Starch and gluecose are commonly used.
Lipids on the other hand, are diverse hydrophobic molecules which do not include polymers. the hydrophobic behavior of lipids is based on their molecular structure, consisting mostly of hydrocarbons. Lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats are constructed from glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids vary in length and how many bonds they have. The major function of fat is energy storage. Phosophilipds have two fatty acid tails and can be polar charged. The phosopholipids form a boundary between the cell and it's environment and are major components for cell membranes. Steroids are lipids with four fused rings on it's carbon skeleton. Cholesterol is a common component of steroids and found in animal cell membranes.
Proteins consist of one or more polypeptides (amino acids) and the physical and chemical properties of the side chain determines what that specific amino acid does. A protein's configuration determines how it works; the function of a protein depends on its ability to recognize and bind to other molecules. Proteins have four structures and can unfold due to denaturation. But once a protein denaturizes, it no longer functions.
Nucleic acids are informational polymers which store and transmit hereditary information. Two types of nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. DNA is the genetic material an organisms inherits from their parents.Each gene along the DNA molecule directs the synthesis of the messenger RNA. Messenger RNA then directs the genetic instructions for building proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. DNA molecules form a double helix, and the bases have to go together with the same pair. If this is not correct, then the DNA copying of genes will not be correct either.
Five things that I learned was that 1) fatty acids vary in length and how many bonds they have. The major function of fat is energy storage, 2) Phosophilipds are hydrophobic to water, but the phosphate group and its attachments can form a hydrophilic head that likes water, 3)Proteins have four structures and can unfold due to denaturation. But once a protein denaturizes, it no longer functions, 4)Messenger RNA then directs the genetic instructions for building proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and 5)Protein conformation can depend on physical and chemical conditions of the protein's environment, as well as pH, salt concentration, temperature, and other aspects of its environment.

Source: Campbell book
Website: http://biomodel.uah.es/en/model3/index.htm

Biochemistry Unit Wordle

Ninety-six percent of all living matter is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. We need these elements to live. Each element consists of atoms, subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons. Each elements differ in their number of subatomic particles, resulting in different atomic number and atomic weight. Isotopes differ in the amount of neutrons the element contains. Bonds are also important because those are what holds the elements together; nonpolar and polar covalent bonds give elements a negative or positive attraction, due from their electronegativity attraction from electrons. Water is the solvent of life. Six properties of water are crucial to our biosphere.
Carbon atoms and carbon skeletons are crucial to the formation and diversity of organic molecules. Furthermore, carboyhydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids each have their own unique structures that determine their roles. Carbohydrates are used for fuel and building materials, proteins for structural support, storage, movement, and defense. The most important protein is an enzyme which accelerates chemical reactions within the cell. Lipids are hydrophobic molecules and nucleic acids such as RNA and DNA transmit hereditary information within the cell.

Ecology Unit Wordle

The words listed are important to the ecology unit because we see major themes that pop up in every chapter. Each species has it's own evolution, it's own niche, and therefore it's own behavior to adapting to their environment. They must fave interspecific and intraspecific interactions with other organisms. Without the biogeochemical cycles, our ecosystem/biosphere would not be able to obtain carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. Also, without our trophic levels, there would be no transfer of energy or releasement of heat as the level of organizations(another theme) moves up after each organism eats an organism. Ecosystems are subject to changes and it can be caused by either organisms or humans. Humans can set fire, destroy lands for urbanization and agriculture, while abiotic and biotic factors can affect the ecosystems. As ecosystems are being wiped out, animals are going to be labeled as endangered or threatened species.

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